{"id":401,"date":"2024-12-17T11:42:22","date_gmt":"2024-12-17T11:42:22","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/192.168.10.18\/arslan\/Demo\/GeekyBot\/?p=401"},"modified":"2025-06-19T04:52:13","modified_gmt":"2025-06-19T04:52:13","slug":"psychology","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/psychology\/","title":{"rendered":"Psychology"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"grey-box w-100 grey-box-top\">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box-content mx-auto w-100\"><nav class=\"breadcrumb mt-20\"><span class=\"breadcrumb-item \"><a class=\"link-gray-600\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Health-Medicine\">Health &amp; Medicine<\/a><\/span><span class=\"breadcrumb-item \"><a class=\"link-gray-600\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Psychology-Mental-Health\">Psychology &amp; Mental Health<\/a><\/span><\/nav>\r\n<div class=\"page2ref-true topic-content topic-type-REGULAR\" data-student-article=\"true\">\r\n<div class=\"reading-channel\">\r\n<div class=\"desktop-header-image module-spacing\">\r\n<figure class=\"md-assembly m-0 mb-20 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false\" data-assembly-id=\"13684\" data-asm-type=\"image\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-wrapper card-media \" data-type=\"image\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/10\/10710-004-76C3C341\/William-James.jpg\" data-href=\"\/media\/1\/481700\/28338\"><picture><source srcset=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/10\/10710-004-76C3C341\/William-James.jpg?w=300\" media=\"(min-width: 680px)\" \/><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/10\/10710-004-76C3C341\/William-James.jpg?w=400&amp;h=300&amp;c=crop\" alt=\"William James\" \/><\/picture><button class=\"magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10\" aria-label=\"Zoom in\"><\/button><\/a><\/div>\r\n<figcaption class=\"card-body\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/10\/10710-004-76C3C341\/William-James.jpg\" data-href=\"\/media\/1\/481700\/28338\">William James<\/a><\/div>\r\n<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"topic-header\">\r\n<div class=\"md-byline module-spacing \">\r\n<div class=\"font-serif font-12\"><span class=\"written-by text-gray-700\">Written by <\/span><span class=\"btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline\">Walter Mischel<\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"font-serif font-12 text-gray-700\"><span class=\"qa-fact-checked-by\">Fact-checked by<\/span> <span class=\"btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 \">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica<\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"last-updated font-12 font-serif\"><span class=\"text-gray-700\">Last Updated:\u00a0<time datetime=\"2024-10-28T00:00:00CDT\">Oct 28, 2024<\/time>\u00a0\u2022<\/span>\u00a0<a class=\"byline-edit-history\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/psychology\/additional-info#history\" rel=\"nofollow\">Article History<\/a><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref1\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\"><strong><span id=\"ref9379\"><\/span>psychology<\/strong>, scientific\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/discipline\" data-term=\"discipline\" data-type=\"MW\">discipline<\/a>\u00a0that studies mental states and processes and\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083329\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/human-behavior\" data-show-preview=\"true\">behaviour<\/a>\u00a0in humans and other animals.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">The discipline of psychology is broadly divisible into two parts: a large profession of practitioners and a smaller but growing\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">science<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mind\" data-show-preview=\"true\">mind<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/brain\" data-show-preview=\"true\">brain<\/a>, and social behaviour. The two have distinctive goals, training, and practices, but some psychologists\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/integrate\" data-term=\"integrate\" data-type=\"MW\">integrate<\/a>\u00a0the two.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\"><em><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sigmund-Freud-on-psychoanalysis-1983319\" data-show-preview=\"true\">(Read Sigmund Freud\u2019s 1926 Britannica essay on psychoanalysis.)<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288091\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h1\">Early history<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">In Western\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/culture\" data-term=\"culture\" data-type=\"MW\">culture<\/a>, contributors to the development of psychology came from many areas, beginning with philosophers such as\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Plato\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Plato<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Aristotle\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Aristotle<\/a>.\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083296\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Hippocrates\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Hippocrates<\/a>\u00a0philosophized about basic human\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083300\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/temperament\" data-show-preview=\"true\">temperaments<\/a>\u00a0(e.g., choleric,\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/sanguine\" data-term=\"sanguine\" data-type=\"MW\">sanguine<\/a>, melancholic) and their associated traits. Informed by the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/biology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">biology<\/a>\u00a0of his time, he speculated that physical qualities, such as yellow bile or too much blood, might underlie differences in temperament (<em>see also<\/em>\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/humor\" data-show-preview=\"true\">humour<\/a>). Aristotle postulated the brain to be the seat of the rational human mind, and in the 17th century\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Rene-Descartes\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Ren\u00e9 Descartes<\/a>\u00a0argued that the mind gives people the capacities for\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/thought\" data-show-preview=\"true\">thought<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/consciousness\" data-show-preview=\"true\">consciousness<\/a>: the mind \u201cdecides\u201d and the body carries out the decision\u2014a\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mind-body-dualism\" data-show-preview=\"true\">dualistic<\/a>\u00a0mind-body split that modern psychological science is still working to overcome. Two figures who helped to found psychology as a formal discipline and science in the 19th century were\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Wilhelm-Wundt\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Wilhelm Wundt<\/a>\u00a0in Germany and\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083297\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/William-James\" data-show-preview=\"true\">William James<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States\" data-show-preview=\"true\">United States<\/a>. James\u2019s\u00a0<em><span id=\"ref1083298\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/The-Principles-of-Psychology-by-James\">The Principles of Psychology<\/a><\/em>\u00a0(1890) defined psychology as the science of mental life and provided insightful discussions of topics and challenges that anticipated much of the field\u2019s research agenda a century later.<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"assemblies\">\r\n<div class=\"w-100\">\r\n<figure class=\"md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false\" data-assembly-id=\"13398\" data-asm-type=\"image\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-wrapper card-media\" data-type=\"image\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/9693-004-78E28DB4\/Ivan-Petrovich-Pavlov.jpg\" data-href=\"\/media\/1\/481700\/13398\"><picture><source srcset=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/9693-004-78E28DB4\/Ivan-Petrovich-Pavlov.jpg?w=300\" media=\"(min-width: 680px)\" \/><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/9693-004-78E28DB4\/Ivan-Petrovich-Pavlov.jpg?w=300\" alt=\"Ivan Pavlov\" data-width=\"231\" data-height=\"300\" \/><\/picture><button class=\"magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10\" aria-label=\"Zoom in\"><\/button><\/a><\/div>\r\n<figcaption class=\"card-body\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/9693-004-78E28DB4\/Ivan-Petrovich-Pavlov.jpg\" data-href=\"\/media\/1\/481700\/13398\">Ivan Pavlov<\/a><\/div>\r\n<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">During the first half of the 20th century, however,\u00a0<span id=\"ref9384\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/behaviourism-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">behaviourism<\/a>\u00a0dominated most of American academic psychology. In 1913\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083299\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/John-B-Watson\" data-show-preview=\"true\">John B. Watson<\/a>, one of the influential founders of behaviourism, urged reliance on only objectively measurable actions and conditions, effectively removing the study of\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/consciousness\" data-term=\"consciousness\" data-type=\"MW\">consciousness<\/a>\u00a0from psychology. He argued that psychology as a science must deal exclusively with directly observable behaviour in lower animals as well as humans, emphasized the importance of rewarding only desired behaviours in child rearing, and drew on principles of\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083308\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/learning\" data-show-preview=\"true\">learning<\/a>\u00a0through classical\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/conditioning\" data-show-preview=\"true\">conditioning<\/a>\u00a0(based on studies with dogs by the Russian physiologist\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ivan-Pavlov\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Ivan Pavlov<\/a>\u00a0and thus known as\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/Pavlovian-conditioning\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Pavlovian conditioning<\/a>). In the United States most university psychology departments became devoted to turning psychology away from\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/philosophy\" data-show-preview=\"true\">philosophy<\/a>\u00a0and into a rigorous\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/empirical\" data-term=\"empirical\" data-type=\"MW\">empirical<\/a>\u00a0science.<\/p>\r\n<a class=\"link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/introduction-to-psychology-quiz\" data-link-module-iframe-link=\"\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"rounded-sm mr-15\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/152936-131-641469F1\/Magnetic-resonance-imaging-types-abnormalities.jpg\" alt=\"magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). brain. brain scanning. A MRI of a human head back and side view. The MRI is a three-dimensional diagnostic imaging technique used to visualize inside the body without the need for X-rays or other radiation. Health care\" width=\"70\" \/><\/a>\r\n<div class=\"line-clamp clamp-5\">\r\n<div class=\"module-title bg-green\">Britannica Quiz<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"font-weight-semi-bold mt-5\">Introduction to Psychology Quiz<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288092\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h1\">Behaviourism<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Beginning in the 1930s, behaviourism flourished in the United States, with\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083301\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/B-F-Skinner\" data-show-preview=\"true\">B.F. Skinner<\/a>\u00a0leading the way in demonstrating the power of\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083302\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/conditioning\" data-show-preview=\"true\">operant conditioning<\/a>\u00a0through reinforcement. Behaviourists in university settings conducted experiments on the conditions controlling learning and \u201cshaping\u201d behaviour through reinforcement, usually working with\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/laboratory-science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">laboratory<\/a>\u00a0animals such as rats and pigeons. Skinner and his followers explicitly excluded mental life, viewing the human mind as an impenetrable \u201cblack box,\u201d open only to conjecture and speculative fictions. Their work showed that social behaviour is readily influenced by manipulating specific\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/contingencies\" data-term=\"contingencies\" data-type=\"MW\">contingencies<\/a>\u00a0and by changing the consequences or reinforcement (rewards) to which behaviour leads in different situations. Changes in those consequences can modify behaviour in predictable stimulus-response (S-R) patterns. Likewise, a wide range of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/emotion\" data-show-preview=\"true\">emotions<\/a>, both positive and negative, may be acquired through processes of conditioning and can be modified by applying the same principles.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288093\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h1\">Freud and his followers<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"assemblies\">\r\n<div class=\"w-100\">\r\n<figure class=\"md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false\" data-assembly-id=\"19114\" data-asm-type=\"image\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-wrapper card-media\" data-type=\"image\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/23358-050-4FB46D99\/Sigmund-Freud.jpg\" data-href=\"\/media\/1\/481700\/19114\"><picture><source srcset=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/23358-050-4FB46D99\/Sigmund-Freud.jpg?w=300\" media=\"(min-width: 680px)\" \/><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/23358-050-4FB46D99\/Sigmund-Freud.jpg?w=300\" alt=\"Sigmund Freud\" data-width=\"1280\" data-height=\"1600\" \/><\/picture><button class=\"magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10\" aria-label=\"Zoom in\"><\/button><\/a><\/div>\r\n<figcaption class=\"card-body\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/23358-050-4FB46D99\/Sigmund-Freud.jpg\" data-href=\"\/media\/1\/481700\/19114\">Sigmund Freud<\/a>Sigmund Freud, c. 1907.<\/div>\r\n<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Concurrently, in a curious\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/juxtaposition\" data-term=\"juxtaposition\" data-type=\"MW\">juxtaposition<\/a>, the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/psychoanalysis\" data-show-preview=\"true\">psychoanalytic<\/a>\u00a0theories and therapeutic practices developed by the Vienna-trained physician\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083303\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sigmund-Freud\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Sigmund Freud<\/a>\u00a0and his many disciples\u2014beginning early in the 20th century and enduring for many decades\u2014were undermining the traditional view of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/human-nature\" data-show-preview=\"true\">human nature<\/a>\u00a0as essentially rational. Freudian theory made\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/reason\" data-show-preview=\"true\">reason<\/a>\u00a0secondary: for Freud, the\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083304\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/unconscious\" data-show-preview=\"true\">unconscious<\/a>\u00a0and its often socially unacceptable irrational motives and desires, particularly the sexual and aggressive, were the driving force underlying much of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/human-behavior\" data-show-preview=\"true\">human behaviour<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/mental-disorder\" data-show-preview=\"true\">mental illness<\/a>. Making the unconscious conscious became the therapeutic goal of clinicians working within this framework.<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"module-spacing\">\r\n<div class=\"marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content\" data-marketing-id=\"INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION\">\r\n<div class=\"student-promo-banner-wrapper\">\r\n<div class=\"student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20\">\r\n<div class=\"student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"rounded\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/BlueThistle.webp\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white\">\r\n<div class=\"h2 mb-10\">Get Unlimited Access<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"h4 font-weight-semi-bold\">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto\"><a class=\"btn btn-m btn-orange\" href=\"https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&amp;utm_medium=inline-cta&amp;utm_campaign=august-2024\">Subscribe<\/a><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Freud proposed that much of what humans feel, think, and do is outside awareness, self-defensive in its motivations, and unconsciously determined. Much of it also reflects conflicts grounded in early childhood that\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/play-behavior\" data-show-preview=\"true\">play<\/a>\u00a0out in complex patterns of seemingly paradoxical behaviours and symptoms. His followers, the\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083309\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/ego-philosophy-and-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">ego<\/a>\u00a0psychologists, emphasized the importance of the higher-order functions and\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/cognitive\" data-term=\"cognitive\" data-type=\"MW\">cognitive<\/a>\u00a0processes (e.g., competence\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/motivation\" data-show-preview=\"true\">motivation<\/a>, self-regulatory abilities) as well as the individual\u2019s psychological\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/defense-mechanism\" data-show-preview=\"true\">defense mechanisms<\/a>. They also shifted their focus to the roles of interpersonal relations and of secure attachment in\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/mental-hygiene\" data-show-preview=\"true\">mental health<\/a>\u00a0and adaptive functioning, and they pioneered the analysis of these processes in the clinical setting.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288094\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h1\">After World War II and\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083305\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Sputnik\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Sputnik<\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">After\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/World-War-II\" data-show-preview=\"true\">World War II<\/a>, American psychology, particularly clinical psychology, grew into a substantial field in its own right, partly in response to the needs of returning veterans. The growth of psychology as a science was stimulated further by the launching of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Sputnik\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Sputnik<\/a>\u00a0in 1957 and the opening of the Russian-American space race to the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Moon\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Moon<\/a>. As part of this race, the U.S. government fueled the growth of science. For the first time, massive federal funding became available, both to support behavioral research and to enable graduate training. Psychology became both a thriving profession of practitioners and a scientific discipline that investigated all aspects of human social behaviour,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/child-development-process\" data-show-preview=\"true\">child development<\/a>, and individual differences, as well as the areas of animal psychology,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/sensation\" data-show-preview=\"true\">sensation<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/perception\" data-show-preview=\"true\">perception<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/memory-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">memory<\/a>, and learning.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Training in\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/clinical-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">clinical psychology<\/a>\u00a0was heavily influenced by Freudian psychology and its offshoots. But some clinical researchers, working with both normal and disturbed populations, began to develop and apply methods focusing on the learning conditions that influence and control social behaviour. This\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083307\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/behaviour-therapy\" data-show-preview=\"true\">behaviour therapy<\/a>\u00a0movement analyzed problematic behaviours (e.g.,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/aggressive-behaviour\" data-show-preview=\"true\">aggressiveness<\/a>, bizarre speech patterns,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/smoking-tobacco\" data-show-preview=\"true\">smoking<\/a>, fear responses) in terms of the observable events and conditions that seemed to influence the person\u2019s problematic behaviour. Behavioral approaches led to\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/innovations\" data-term=\"innovations\" data-type=\"MW\">innovations<\/a>\u00a0for\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/therapeutics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">therapy<\/a>\u00a0by working to modify problematic behaviour not through insight, awareness, or the uncovering of unconscious motivations but by addressing the behaviour itself. Behaviourists attempted to modify the maladaptive behaviour directly, examining the conditions controlling the individual\u2019s current problems, not their possible historical roots. They also intended to show that such efforts could be successful without the symptom substitution that Freudian theory predicted. Freudians believed that removing the troubling behaviour directly would be followed by new and worse problems. Behaviour therapists showed that this was not necessarily the case.<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"one-good-fact-module\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">To begin exploring the role of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/genetics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">genetics<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083314\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/personality\" data-show-preview=\"true\">personality<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/social-learning\" data-show-preview=\"true\">social development<\/a>, psychologists compared the similarity in personality shown by people who share the same\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/gene\" data-show-preview=\"true\">genes<\/a>\u00a0or the same\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/environment\" data-term=\"environment\" data-type=\"MW\">environment<\/a>.\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083315\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/twin\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Twin<\/a>\u00a0studies compared monozygotic (identical) as opposed to dizygotic (fraternal) twins, raised either in the same or in different\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/environments\" data-term=\"environments\" data-type=\"MW\">environments<\/a>. Overall, these studies demonstrated the important role of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/heredity-genetics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">heredity<\/a>\u00a0in a wide range of human characteristics and traits, such as those of the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/introvert\" data-show-preview=\"true\">introvert and extravert<\/a>, and indicated that the biological-genetic influence was far greater than early behaviourism had assumed. At the same time, it also became clear that how such\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/dispositions\" data-term=\"dispositions\" data-type=\"MW\">dispositions<\/a>\u00a0are expressed in behaviour depends importantly on interactions with the environment in the course of development, beginning in utero.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"chatbot-root\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ai-dialog-placeholder\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<div data-page-index=\"1\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"loaded-infinite-scroll-container qa-infinite-scroll-container\">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box w-100 \">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box-content mx-auto w-100\">\r\n<div class=\"page2ref-false topic-content topic-type-REGULAR\">\r\n<div class=\"reading-channel\">\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288095\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h1 class=\"h1\">Impact and aftermath of the\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083317\"><\/span>cognitive revolution<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">By the early 1960s the relevance of the Skinnerian approach for understanding complex mental processes was seriously questioned. The linguist\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083316\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Noam-Chomsky\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Noam Chomsky<\/a>\u2019s critical review of Skinner\u2019s theory of \u201cverbal behaviour\u201d in 1959 showed that it could not properly account for human\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/language\/Language-acquisition#ref27169\" data-show-preview=\"true\">language acquisition<\/a>. It was one of several triggers for a\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/paradigm\" data-term=\"paradigm\" data-type=\"MW\">paradigm<\/a>\u00a0shift that by the mid-1960s became the \u201ccognitive revolution,\u201d which compellingly argued against\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/behaviourism-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">behaviourism<\/a>\u00a0and led to the development of\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083326\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/cognitive-science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">cognitive science<\/a>. In conjunction with\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/concurrent\" data-term=\"concurrent\" data-type=\"MW\">concurrent<\/a>\u00a0analyses and advances in areas from\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/computer-science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">computer science<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/artificial-intelligence\" data-show-preview=\"true\">artificial intelligence<\/a>\u00a0to neuroscience,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/genetics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">genetics<\/a>, and applications of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/evolution-scientific-theory\" data-show-preview=\"true\">evolutionary theory<\/a>, the scientific study of the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mind\" data-show-preview=\"true\">mind<\/a>\u00a0and mental activity quickly became the foundation for much of the evolving new psychological\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">science<\/a>\u00a0in the 21st century.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Psychological scientists demonstrated that organisms have innate\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/dispositions\" data-term=\"dispositions\" data-type=\"MW\">dispositions<\/a>\u00a0and that human brains are distinctively prepared for\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diverse\" data-term=\"diverse\" data-type=\"MW\">diverse<\/a>\u00a0higher-level mental activities, from language acquisition to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/mathematics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">mathematics<\/a>, as well as\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/space-perception\" data-show-preview=\"true\">space perception<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/thought\" data-show-preview=\"true\">thinking<\/a>, and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/memory-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">memory<\/a>. They also developed and tested diverse theoretical models for conceptualizing mental representations in complex\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/information-processing\" data-show-preview=\"true\">information processing<\/a>\u00a0conducted at multiple levels of awareness. They asked such questions as: How does the individual\u2019s stored knowledge give rise to the patterns or networks of mental representations activated at a particular time? How is memory organized? In a related direction, the analysis of visual\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/perception\" data-show-preview=\"true\">perception<\/a>\u00a0took increasing account of how the features of the\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/environment\" data-term=\"environment\" data-type=\"MW\">environment<\/a>\u00a0(e.g., the objects, places, and other animals in one\u2019s world) provide information, the perception of which is vital for the organism\u2019s survival. Consequently, information about the possibilities and dangers of the environment, on the one side, and the animal\u2019s dispositions and\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/adaptation\" data-term=\"adaptation\" data-type=\"MW\">adaptation<\/a>\u00a0efforts, on the other, become inseparable: their interactions become the focus of research and theory building.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Concurrently, to investigate\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/personality\" data-show-preview=\"true\">personality<\/a>, individual differences, and social behaviour, a number of theorists made\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/learning\" data-show-preview=\"true\">learning<\/a>\u00a0theories both more social (interpersonal) and more\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/cognitive\" data-term=\"cognitive\" data-type=\"MW\">cognitive<\/a>. They moved far beyond the earlier conditioning and reward-and-punishment principles, focusing on how a person\u2019s characteristics interact with situational opportunities and demands. Research demonstrated the importance of learning through observation from real and symbolic models, showing that it occurs spontaneously and cognitively without requiring any direct reinforcement. Likewise, studies of the development of self-control and the ability to delay gratification in young children showed that it is crucially important how the situation and the temptations are cognitively appraised: when the appraisal changes, so does the behaviour. Thus, the focus shifted from reinforcement and \u201cstimulus control\u201d to the mental mechanisms that enable self-control.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Traditional personality-trait\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/taxonomies\" data-term=\"taxonomies\" data-type=\"MW\">taxonomies<\/a>\u00a0continued to describe individuals and types using such terms as\u00a0<em>introversion-extraversion<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>sociable-hostile<\/em>, based on broad trait ratings. In new directions, consistent with developments in cognitive science and\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083328\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/social-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">social psychology<\/a>, individual differences were reconceptualized in terms of cognitive social variables, such as people\u2019s constructs (encoding of information), personal goals and beliefs, and\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/competencies\" data-term=\"competencies\" data-type=\"MW\">competencies<\/a>\u00a0and skills. Research examined the nature of the consistencies and variability that characterize individuals distinctively across situations and over time and began to identify how different types of individuals respond to different types of psychological situations. The often surprising findings led to new models of cognitive and affective information-processing systems.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">In clinical applications,\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083327\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/cognitive-behaviour-therapy\" data-show-preview=\"true\">cognitive-behaviour therapy<\/a>\u00a0(CBT) was developed. CBT focuses on identifying and changing negative, inaccurate, or otherwise maladaptive beliefs and thought patterns through a combination of cognitive and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/behaviour-therapy\" data-show-preview=\"true\">behaviour therapy<\/a>. It helps people to change how they think and feel about themselves and others. In time, these cognitive-behavioral treatment\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/innovations\" data-term=\"innovations\" data-type=\"MW\">innovations<\/a>, often supplemented with medications, were shown to be useful for treating diverse problems, including disabling fears, self-control difficulties, addictions, and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/depression-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">depression<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"module-spacing\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">In social psychology, beginning in the early 1970s, social cognition\u2014how people process social information about other people and the self\u2014became a major area of study. Research focused on such topics as the nature and functions of self-concepts and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/self-esteem\" data-show-preview=\"true\">self-esteem<\/a>; cultural differences in information processing; interpersonal relations and social communication; attitudes and social-influence processes;\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/altruism-ethics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">altruism<\/a>, aggression, and obedience;\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/motivation\" data-show-preview=\"true\">motivation<\/a>,\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083330\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/emotion\" data-show-preview=\"true\">emotion<\/a>, planning, and self-regulation; and the influence of people\u2019s dispositions and characteristics on their dealings with different types of situations and experiences. Recognizing that much information processing occurs at levels below awareness and proceeds automatically, research turned to the effects of subliminal (below awareness) stimuli on the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/activation-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">activation<\/a>\u00a0of diverse kinds of mental representations, emotions, and social behaviours. Research at the intersection of social\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cognition-thought-process\" data-show-preview=\"true\">cognition<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/health\" data-show-preview=\"true\">health<\/a>\u00a0psychology began to examine how people\u2019s beliefs, positive\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/illusions\" data-term=\"illusions\" data-type=\"MW\">illusions<\/a>, expectations, and self-regulatory abilities may help them deal with diverse traumas and threats to their health and the stress that arises when trying to cope with diseases such as\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/HIV\" data-show-preview=\"true\">HIV<\/a>\/<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/AIDS\" data-show-preview=\"true\">AIDS<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/cancer-disease\" data-show-preview=\"true\">cancer<\/a>. Working with a variety of animal species, from mice and birds to higher mammals such as apes, researchers investigated social\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/communication\" data-show-preview=\"true\">communication<\/a>\u00a0and diverse social behaviours, psychological characteristics, cognitive abilities, and emotions, searching for similarities and differences in comparison with humans.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">In\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083331\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/developmental-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">developmental psychology<\/a>, investigators identified and analyzed with increasing precision the diverse perceptual, cognitive, and numerical abilities of infants and traced their developmental course, while others focused on life-span development and mental and behavioral changes in the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/aging-life-process\" data-show-preview=\"true\">aging<\/a>\u00a0process. Developmental research provided clear evidence that humans, rather than entering the world with a mental blank\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/slate\" data-term=\"slate\" data-type=\"EB\">slate<\/a>, are extensively prepared for all sorts of cognitive and skill development. At the same time, research also has yielded equally impressive evidence for the plasticity of the human\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/brain\" data-show-preview=\"true\">brain<\/a>\u00a0and the possibilities for change in the course of development.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"chatbot-root\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-page-index=\"2\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"loaded-infinite-scroll-container qa-infinite-scroll-container\">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box w-100 \">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box-content mx-auto w-100\">\r\n<div class=\"page2ref-false topic-content topic-type-REGULAR\">\r\n<div class=\"reading-channel\">\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288096\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h1 class=\"h1\">Linking mind,\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083332\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/brain\" data-show-preview=\"true\">brain<\/a>, and behaviour<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"assemblies\">\r\n<div class=\"w-100\">\r\n<figure class=\"md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false\" data-assembly-id=\"199555\" data-asm-type=\"video\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-wrapper card-media\" data-type=\"video\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/psychologist-research-human-biological-processes-relationships\/-199555\" data-id=\"182765\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/182765-138-9B8C36A5\/psychologist-research-human-biological-processes-relationships.jpg?w=800&amp;h=450&amp;c=crop\" alt=\"Watch a researcher explain the biological and psychological processes of how love works\" \/><\/a>\r\n<div class=\"btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<figcaption class=\"card-body\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp\"><span class=\"md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption\">Watch a researcher explain the biological and psychological processes of how love works<\/span>A psychologist discusses his research into the biological and psychological processes involved in love relationships.<button class=\"js-more-btn btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content\" aria-label=\"Toggle more\/less fact data\"><span class=\"link-blue\">(more)<\/span><\/button><\/div>\r\n<a class=\"font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/psychology\/images-videos\">See all videos for this article<\/a><\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Late in the 20th century, methods for observing the activity of the living brain were developed that made it possible to explore links between what the brain is doing and psychological phenomena, thus opening a window into the relationship between the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mind\" data-show-preview=\"true\">mind<\/a>, brain, and behaviour. The functioning of the brain enables everything one does, feels, and knows. To examine brain activity,\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083333\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging\" data-show-preview=\"true\">functional magnetic resonance imaging<\/a>\u00a0(fMRI) is used to measure the magnetic fields created by the functioning\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/neuron\" data-show-preview=\"true\">nerve cells<\/a>\u00a0in the brain, detecting changes in blood flow. With the aid of computers, this information can be translated into images, which virtually \u201clight up\u201d the amount of activity in different areas of the brain as the person performs mental tasks and experiences different kinds of perceptions, images, thoughts, and emotions. They thus allow a much more precise and detailed analysis of the links between activity in the brain and the mental state a person experiences while responding to different types of stimuli\u00a0and generating different thoughts and emotions. These can range, for example, from thoughts and images about what one fears and dreads to those directed at what one\u00a0craves the most. The result of this technology is a virtual revolution for work that uses the biological\u00a0level of neural activity to address questions that are of core interest for psychologists working in almost all areas of the\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/discipline\" data-term=\"discipline\" data-type=\"MW\">discipline<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288097\" data-level=\"2\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h2\"><span id=\"ref1083334\"><\/span>Social cognitive neuroscience<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"assemblies\">\r\n<div class=\"w-100\">\r\n<figure class=\"md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false\" data-assembly-id=\"219152\" data-asm-type=\"video\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-wrapper card-media\" data-type=\"video\"><a class=\"gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/neuroscientist-texting-brain\/-219152\" data-id=\"193414\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/193414-138-A3CF0308\/neuroscientist-texting-brain.jpg?w=800&amp;h=450&amp;c=crop\" alt=\"Learn about the neuroscience behind text messaging\" \/><\/a>\r\n<div class=\"btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<figcaption class=\"card-body\">\r\n<div class=\"md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp\"><span class=\"md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption\">Learn about the neuroscience behind text messaging<\/span>A neuroscientist explains what&#8217;s happening in a person&#8217;s brain when they&#8217;re texting.<button class=\"js-more-btn btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content\" aria-label=\"Toggle more\/less fact data\"><span class=\"link-blue\">(more)<\/span><\/button><\/div>\r\n<a class=\"font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/psychology\/images-videos\">See all videos for this article<\/a><\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">The advances described above led to the development in the early years of the 21st century of a new, highly popular field: social\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/cognitive\" data-term=\"cognitive\" data-type=\"MW\">cognitive<\/a>\u00a0neuroscience (SCN). This interdisciplinary field asks questions about topics traditionally of interest to social psychologists, such as person\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/perception\" data-show-preview=\"true\">perception<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/attitude-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">attitude<\/a>\u00a0change, and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/emotion\" data-show-preview=\"true\">emotion<\/a>\u00a0regulation. It does so by using methods traditionally employed by cognitive neuroscientists, such as functional brain imaging and neuropsychological patient analysis. By\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/integrating\" data-term=\"integrating\" data-type=\"MW\">integrating<\/a>\u00a0the theories and methods of its parent\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/disciplines\" data-term=\"disciplines\" data-type=\"MW\">disciplines<\/a>, SCN tries to understand the interactions between social behaviour,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cognition-thought-process\" data-show-preview=\"true\">cognition<\/a>, and brain mechanisms.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288098\" data-level=\"2\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h2\"><span id=\"ref1083335\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/epigenetics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Epigenetics<\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">The term\u00a0<em>epigenetic<\/em>\u00a0is used to describe the\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/dynamic\" data-term=\"dynamic\" data-type=\"MW\">dynamic<\/a>\u00a0interplay between genes and the\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083337\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/environment\" data-show-preview=\"true\">environment<\/a>\u00a0during the course of development. The study of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/epigenetics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">epigenetics<\/a>\u00a0highlights the complex nature of the relationship between the organism\u2019s\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083336\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/genetic-code\" data-show-preview=\"true\">genetic code<\/a>, or genome, and the organism\u2019s directly observable physical and psychological\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/manifestations\" data-term=\"manifestations\" data-type=\"MW\">manifestations<\/a>\u00a0and behaviours. In contemporary use, the term refers to efforts to explain individual differences in physical as well as behavioral traits (e.g., hostility-aggression) in terms of the molecular mechanisms that affect the activity of genes, essentially turning on some genes and turning off others.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Epigenetic regulation of gene activity plays a critical role in the process of development, influencing the organism\u2019s psychological and behavioral expressions. Thus, while the genome provides the possibilities, the\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/environment\" data-term=\"environment\" data-type=\"MW\">environment<\/a>\u00a0determines which genes become activated. In the early 21st century there emerged evidence for the important role of the environment (e.g., in maternal behaviour with the newborn) in shaping the activity of genes. Epigenetic factors may serve as a critical biological link between the experiences of an individual and subsequent individual differences in brain and behaviour, both within and across generations. Epigenetic research points to the pathways through which environmental influence and psychological experiences may be transformed and transmitted at the biological level. It thus provides another route for the increasingly deep analysis of mind-brain-behaviour links at multiple levels of analysis, from the psychological to the biological.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288099\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h1\">Evolving scope and structure of psychological science<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">The discoveries and advances of psychological\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">science<\/a>\u00a0keep expanding its scope and tools and changing its structure and organization. For most of the 20th century, psychological science consisted of a variety of specialized subfields with little interconnection. They ranged from\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/clinical-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">clinical psychology<\/a>\u00a0to the study of individual differences and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/personality\" data-show-preview=\"true\">personality<\/a>, to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/social-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">social psychology<\/a>, to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/industrial-organizational-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">industrial-organizational psychology<\/a>, to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/community-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">community psychology<\/a>, to the experimental study of such basic processes as\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/memory-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">memory<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/thought\" data-show-preview=\"true\">thinking<\/a>, perception and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/sensation\" data-show-preview=\"true\">sensation<\/a>, to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/animal-behavior\" data-show-preview=\"true\">animal behaviour<\/a>, and to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/biological-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">physiological psychology<\/a>. In larger academic psychology departments, the list got longer. The various subfields, each with its own distinct\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/history\" data-show-preview=\"true\">history<\/a>\u00a0and specialized mission, usually were bundled together within academic departments, essentially a loose federation of unrelated disciplines, each with its own training program and research agenda. Late in the 20th century this situation began to change, fueled in part by the rapid growth of developments in\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/cognitive-science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">cognitive science<\/a>\u00a0and social cognitive neuroscience, including the discovery of new methods for studying cognition, emotion, the brain, and genetic influences on mind and behaviour.<\/p>\r\n<a class=\"link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/introduction-to-psychology-quiz\" data-link-module-iframe-link=\"\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"rounded-sm mr-15\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/152936-131-641469F1\/Magnetic-resonance-imaging-types-abnormalities.jpg\" alt=\"magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). brain. brain scanning. A MRI of a human head back and side view. The MRI is a three-dimensional diagnostic imaging technique used to visualize inside the body without the need for X-rays or other radiation. Health care\" width=\"70\" \/><\/a>\r\n<div class=\"line-clamp clamp-5\">\r\n<div class=\"module-title bg-green\">Britannica Quiz<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"font-weight-semi-bold mt-5\">Introduction to Psychology Quiz<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">In the early years of the 21st century, psychology became an increasingly integrative science at the intersection or hub of\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diverse\" data-term=\"diverse\" data-type=\"MW\">diverse<\/a>\u00a0other disciplines, from\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/biology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">biology<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/neurology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">neurology<\/a>, and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/economics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">economics<\/a>\u00a0to\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/sociology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">sociology<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/anthropology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">anthropology<\/a>. For example, stimulated by Amos Tversky\u2019s and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Daniel-Kahneman\" data-show-preview=\"true\">Daniel Kahneman<\/a>\u2019s theory of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/decision-making\" data-show-preview=\"true\">decision making<\/a>\u00a0under risk, new areas developed, including behavioral economics and decision making, often being taught by psychologists in business schools. Likewise, advances in cognitive neuroscience led to the subfield of neuroeconomics.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">In another direction, links deepened between psychology and\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083338\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/law\" data-show-preview=\"true\">law<\/a>. This connection reflected new findings in psychology about the nature of human social behaviour, as well as the fallibility of eyewitness testimony in legal trials and the distortions in retrospective memory.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">Likewise, with recognition of the role of mental processes and self-care behaviour in the maintenance of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/health\" data-show-preview=\"true\">health<\/a>, the fields of behavioral\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/medicine\" data-show-preview=\"true\">medicine<\/a>\u00a0and health psychology emerged. These subfields study links between psychological processes, social behaviour, and health.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">At the same time, within psychology, old sub-disciplinary boundaries were crossed more freely. Interdisciplinary teams often work on a common problem using different methods and tools that draw on multiple levels of analysis, from the social to the\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/cognitive\" data-term=\"cognitive\" data-type=\"EB\">cognitive<\/a>\u00a0and to the biological.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"chatbot-root\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-page-index=\"3\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"loaded-infinite-scroll-container qa-infinite-scroll-container\">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box w-100 grey-box-bottom\">\r\n<div class=\"grey-box-content mx-auto w-100\">\r\n<div class=\"page2ref-false topic-content topic-type-REGULAR\">\r\n<div class=\"reading-channel\">\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288100\" data-level=\"1\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h1 class=\"h1\">Research methods<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288101\" data-level=\"2\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h2\">Multiple tools and methods for diverse goals<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">An extremely wide range of\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diverse\" data-term=\"diverse\" data-type=\"MW\">diverse<\/a>\u00a0research methods are used by psychological scientists to pursue their particular goals. To study verbal and nonverbal behaviour and mental processes in humans, these include questionnaires, ratings, self-reports, and case studies; tests of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/personality\" data-show-preview=\"true\">personality<\/a>, attitudes, and\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/human-intelligence-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">intelligence<\/a>; structured interviews; daily diary records; and direct observation and behaviour sampling outside the\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/laboratory-science\" data-show-preview=\"true\">laboratory<\/a>. Diverse laboratory measures are used to study\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/perception\" data-show-preview=\"true\">perception<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/attention\" data-show-preview=\"true\">attention<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/memory-psychology\" data-show-preview=\"true\">memory<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/decision-making\" data-show-preview=\"true\">decision making<\/a>, self-control,\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/delay-of-gratification\" data-show-preview=\"true\">delay of gratification<\/a>, and many other visual,\u00a0<a class=\"md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/cognitive\" data-term=\"cognitive\" data-type=\"MW\">cognitive<\/a>, and emotional processes, at levels of both conscious and automatic or\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/unconscious\" data-show-preview=\"true\">unconscious<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/information-processing\" data-show-preview=\"true\">information processing<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"md-sentinel--spy-target\">\u00a0<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"ref288102\" data-level=\"2\" data-has-spy=\"true\">\r\n<h2 class=\"h2\">Complex\u00a0<span id=\"ref1083339\"><\/span><a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/data-science\">data<\/a>-analysis methods<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"topic-paragraph\">The astonishing growth in computational power that began in the final decades of the 20th century transformed research on methods of\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink autoxref \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/data-analysis\" data-show-preview=\"true\">data analysis<\/a>\u00a0in psychology. More-flexible and more-powerful general linear models and mixed models became available. Similarly, for nonexperimental data, multiple\u00a0<a class=\"md-crosslink \" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/regression-statistics\" data-show-preview=\"true\">regression<\/a>\u00a0analysis began to be augmented by structural equation models that allow for chains and webs of interrelationships and for analysis of extremely complex data. The availability of free, fast, and flexible software also began to change teaching in the measurement area.<\/p>\r\n<h3>Disclaimer<\/h3>This content has been reposted from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/psychology\/Linking-mind-brain-and-behaviour\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Britannica.com\/<\/a> for informational purposes only. \u00a0<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Health &amp; MedicinePsychology &amp; Mental Health William James Written by Walter Mischel Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Last [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":3106,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[126,115,144],"tags":[376,380,379,378,381,375,383,382,377],"class_list":["post-401","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-education","category-mental-health","category-psychology","tag-behavioral-psychology","tag-emotional-intelligence","tag-human-behavior","tag-psychological-disorders","tag-psychological-research","tag-psychological-theories","tag-psychology-in-everyday-life","tag-psychology-of-personality","tag-social-psychology"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/401","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=401"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/401\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1467,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/401\/revisions\/1467"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/3106"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=401"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=401"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/demo.geekybot.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=401"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}